Narrative

What is a narrative?

Narrative is simply a word for describing the plot or storyline of a film. Most mainstream films follow a very straightforward, linear structure. At the beginning of the narrative, the audience is introduced to the central characters. There is some kind of disruption to the normal state of affairs which leads to a series of problems and complications that the characters must deal with. The narrative pushes towards a resolution – sometimes happy, sometimes not – where the problem is solved. Increasingly, filmmakers are experimenting with different types of narratives. In Run Lola Run, witer and director Tom Tykwer uses a circular narrative in which events keep repeating themselves. Some films use flashbacks. These narratives are often described as ‘non-linear’ because the events don’t occur in order.

What is genre?

Genre is a French word that means ‘type’. In Media Studies, we classify films into different genres. When you walk around your local video store or browse through films to buy online, they are often categorised into genres. Some notable genres include: action, adventure , comedy, crime, epic films, horror, musicals, science fiction, war films, westerns and film noir. Sometimes, films cannot be easily classified into a single genre. Back to the Future Part III is a good example, because it is a science-fiction film, western and comedy. The conventions of a genre are the elements that commonly occur in such films, they may include things like characters, situations, settings, props, themes and events. For example, a convention of the science-fiction genre is that the narrative often incorporates advanced technology. Here is a list of genres that you can read about further: Action, Adventure, Comedy, Crime, Epic Films, Horror, Musicals, Science Fiction, War Films, Westerns, Film Noir.

Production elements

Production elements—including camera techniques, acting, mise-en-scene, editing, lighting and sound—are the basic storytelling tools that directors have at their disposal. When you’re studying or making a film, it is important to think about how these techniques are used to tell a story.

Camera Techniques

In films, the way the camera is moved, makes a big contribution to the story. Here are some common types of shot zie, camera angles and camera movement.

Shot size

Shot size refers to how far away the camera is from a subject. There are six basic shot sizes:

• extreme long shot
• long shot
• full shot
• mid shot
• close-up
• extreme close up

Establishing shots are often used at the beginning of scenes to establish the setting. At the beginning of a film, for example, you might see an extreme long shot of a city or rolling hills. Then, we cut to a closer shot of a street, building and finally the character inside.
Extreme close ups are usually an attempt to draw the viewer’s attention to a particular detail. For example, the director may choose to cur from a mid shot of a character to an extreme close-up emphasizing something about that character’s appearance.

Camera angle

Camera angle refers to the angle at which the subject is shot. Camera angle can have a particular effect on the audience.

Overshot. The camera is positioned directly above the subject. This is often used in establishing shots, where the camera flies over city streets. Alfred Hitchcock used an overshot in Psycho when Norman Bates carries his mother out of her bedroom and down the stairs.

High Angle. The camera is positioned above the subject, looking down at an angle. This angle makes the subject appear smaller, powerless and more vulnerable.

Eye Level. This is the most commonly used camera angle in film and television. Whereas most other camera angles are highly stylised, an eye level shot creates a sense of normalcy and realism because this is how we see the world. In Jaws, Steven Spielberg used eye level shots to engage audiences, choosing to shoot characters in the water from eye level rather than from above. Cinematographer Bill Butler developed a box which allowed the water to lap up against the camera, effectively putting the audience in the water with the actors.

Low Angle. The camera is positioned below eye level, looking up, to imply a sense of power and dominance.

Undershot. The camera is positioned directly beneath the subject, looking up. Often coupled with point-of-view shots when the character is looking up at something.

Camera movement

Dolly. A dolly is any sort of moving platform that a camera is mounted on. Professional camera crews often lay down tracks which the camera can be moved along. Sometimes, the camera is mounted in the back of a car. Skateboards, office chairs and supermarket trolleys are the dollies of choice for low budget camera crews. Dollies are often used in very subtle ways. Throughout the course of a conversation, for example, you may notice that the camera very subtly moves closer to the characters. In M Night Shyamalan’s Unbreakable, for example, there is a scene where two characters – portrayed by Bruce Willis and Robin Wright Penn – are sharing dinner at a restaurant. The camera gradually dollies in on the couple to suggest a rekindled sense of intimacy.

Tracking Shot. The camera follows a moving subject.

Pan. The camera turns horizontally when mounted on a tripod.

Tilt. The camera tilts up/down when mounted on a tripod.

Crane. The camera is mounted on a crane, helping filmmakers to achieve dynamic overhead shots.

Handheld. Handheld camera movement is often used to achieve a sense of realism. Films like The Blair Witch Project, The Bourne Supremacy and Syriana. Handheld camera movement achieves a sense of realism partly because audiences associate this sort of camera movement with documentary film.

Steadicam. A device that allows camera operators to achieve smooth, fluid camera movement.

Zoom. The lens of a camera is used to magnify an image.

Focus

When composing a shot, filmmakers also consider what will be in focus. Depth of field is a term which describes how far the camera can see into the distance. Narrow depth of field is when only part of the image is in focus and much of the background or foreground is out of focus. Deep focus is when everything, even distant objects, is perfectly in focus. Orson Welle’s film Citizen Kane was one of the early films to use this technique. A pull focus is when filmmakers shift the focus from one object to another.

Sound

Sound is most often added during post production. Directors and sound editors select from collections of sound effects or record new sounds. In many cases, it is impractical to record dialogue and sound effects on the set because other noise interferes with the recording. In this case, actors rerecord their lines in a studio which is then dubbed over the footage. In the very final stages of post production, music is written, recorded and selected for the film. The important point to remember when studying a narrative film is that all of the sounds you can hear – including sound effects, music and dialogue – has been carefully selected and mixed into the soundtrack. It’s important to think about why one sound might be given prominence over another.

Imagine a horror film in which the main character is hiding in a wardrobe of an abandoned house. We see a close up of the character’s face. The sound of soft, furtive footsteps and floorboards creaking echoes down the hallway. We hear ragged breathing and the rumble of distant thunder. As the scene progresses, orchestral music becomes more and more intense until the closet door finally swings open. Examples like this – in which sound contributes both to the narrative and audience engagement – abound in feature films. In M Night Shyamalan’s Signs, for example, a family hiding in their basement to escape an alien invasion is suddenly plunged into darkness. Before the lights come back on, the audience hears a furious struggle, the sound of broken glass and voices. For a few tense moments, deprived of light, the audience must rely on sound to convey the narrative. This combination of sound and lighting creates one of the most tense and frightening moments in the film.

Diegetic sound

Any sound that occurs in the ‘world’ of the film is deemed to be diegetic. Imagine a character walking down a hospital hallway. The sound of his footsteps, the subdued chatter of doctors, the distant sound of an ambulance and the repetitive beep of hospital equipment is all diegetic sound. Anything that the characters cannot hear, such as an orchestral score or background music, is referred to as non-diegetic sound.

In High Anxiety, Dr Richard Thorndyke (Mel Brooks) makes fun of diegetic sound when he discusses his recent appointment to head The Psychoneurotic Institute for the Very, VERY Nervous.

Brophy: Boy, I tell you, it was a real shock to everybody when Ashley died. The guy was in tiptop shape!
Thorndyke: One can never predict a hear attack.
Brophy: Heart attack? Don’t make me laugh.
Thorndyke: Brophy, what are you saying?
Brophy: If you ask me, Dr Ashley was the victim of…foul play!

At this point, both character look around, surprised by sudden orchestral music. They look relieved when it’s only a symphony orchestra on a passing bus.

In The Simpsons, Homer has a similar encounter when he’s lost in the woods one night. Upon hearing the sudden sound of screeching violins, he turns to discover a bus filled with the Springfield Symphony Orchestra. A lone violinist steps off the bus, continues to play and walks into the distance.

Orchestral music

Music serves a number of purposes in narrative films. Both orchestral and popular music is frequently used to elicit an emotional response from the audience such as fear, excitement, romance or elation. Midway through Ridley Scott’s Gladiator, Maximus is forced to fight for his life in a brutal and bloody battle in the Colosseum. Ridley Scott created a tense, furious and brutal scene which made all the more effective by Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard’s orchestral track, The Barbarian Horde. This is a good example of music underscoring and accentuating the action in a narrative.

James Newton Howard’s score for M Night Shyamalan’s The Sixth Sense is also a good example of how orchestral music can contribute to audience engagement. The music increases tension and suspense throughout the film. When composing the score, James Newton Howard built up a layer of sound which consisted of screaming, moaning and whispering. These noises were mixed into the music and, although almost imperceptible in the final mix, contribute to the overall sense of foreboding that this music creates.

Popular music

Popular music frequently features in narrative films. Often, it is used to complement a scene. When the T-800 travels back through time in James Cameron’s Terminator 2, he arrives in the present day completely naked, finds the nearest seedy bar and demands the clothes, boots and motorcycle of one of its patrons. He emerges from the bar clad completely in black to George Thorogood’s ‘Bad to the Bone’.
Although music is frequently used in to complement a scene like this, filmmakers often use music in an ironic or unexpected context. In John Woo’s Face/Off, for example, a child caught in a massive gun battle between criminals and police listens to the song ‘Somewhere Over the Rainbow’ through a pair of headphones. Windows explode, machine guns flash and spark as the room is showered with bullets. The scene plays out in slow motion to this unexpected music. A similar example occurs near the beginning of I am Legend, when Robert Neville (Will Smith) is bathing his dog and singing along to the Bob Marley song ‘Three Birds’.

Singin’: “Don’t worry about a thing,
‘Cause every little thing gonna be all right!”
Rise up this mornin’,
Smiled with the risin’ sun,
Three little birds
Pitch by my doorstep
Singin’ sweet songs
Of melodies pure and true,

Contrary to what the lyrics suggest, everything is not going to be all right. How could it in a nightmarish, post-apocalypic world filled with bloodthirsty vampires? Rather than make the audience feel comforted, this song creates a deep sense of unease.

Whichever film you are studying, it is important to consider the contribution that music makes to the narrative and how it helps to engage audiences.