During your study of narrative, you will examine how production elements contribute to narratives. Production elements include:

You will also look at the contribution that story elements make to narratives. Story elements include:

A good way to remember production elements is using the acronym CAMELS (camera techniques, acting, mise-en-scene and visual composition, editing, lighting and sound). It’s important that you can recall production and story elements quickly, particularly during the Unit 3&4 VCE Media Exam.

During your study of narrative, you will also look at:

Years of watching films and television means you have a sophisticated understanding of genre. Genre is simply a word that means ‘type’. Films are classified into different genres, such as: action, adventure, comedy, crime, horror, musicals, science-fiction, war, westerns and film noir. Each of these genres has particular narrative conventions. Audiences are very knowledgeable about the conventions of these genres. So familiar, in fact, that it’s easy to identify the genre of a film just by watching a few seconds.

Imagine this: It’s late at night and there is a car parked on the side of the road, wreathed in mist and surrounded by trees. Its sole occupant – a woman – looks around, panic stricken. “Rich?” she cries desperately, hoping that her boyfriend is responsible for the mysterious noises outside the car. Her breathing is ragged as she peers through the windshield. Trees rustle ominously in the darkness. She panics, fumbling with the locks and closing the windows. Intense, non-diegetic music builds towards a crescendo.

This twenty-five second clip is from an episode of the television program Supernatural. Although they might not identify the text, everyone who watches this clip easily identifies the genre. Horror. The low key lighting, intense non-diegetic music, mise-en-scene and setting are all conventions of the horror genre.

Consider the relationship between the narratives you are studying and the genres that they belong to. Some filmmakers deliberately play on expectations of genre to engage audiences. There are other cases when audiences enjoy narratives because they conform closely to genre conventions. In the case of romantic comedies, for example, audiences enjoy the resolution provided by a predictably happy ending.

The expectations and knowledge of an audience plays an important role in the way they engage with narratives. Alfred Hitchcock’s classic horror film Psycho, is a great example of a filmmaker deliberately subverting the expectations of an audience. Midway through the narrative the main character, Marion Crane, is brutally murdered. This was particularly shocking because audiences conventionally expect characters to survive until the end of the film.

Audience expectations of a film are usually generated by the marketing campaign for a film. M Night Shyamalan’s Unbreakable was marketed as a thriller, similar to his previous film The Sixth Sense. The film’s poor reception can possibly be attributed to audiences expecting a thriller when they were, in fact, watching a superhero narrative.

Reception context, the conditions under which a narrative is viewed, also plays an important role in audience engagement. Movies are increasingly downloaded and watched on portable media players, such as iPods. Surely a viewer will have a different experience watching a film on their iPod compared to the all encompassing experience of seeing it in a cinema. Likewise, audience engagement with a film might suffer if they view a poorly recorded bootleg copy of a film.

Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight is another example of how reception context can influence audience engagement with the narrative. The movie had six scenes filmed on an IMAX camera. According to numerous reviews, the print screened at IMAX cinemas was more dramatic and engaging than the original.

Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho also presents us with another interesting example of reception context. When the film was released, it was regarded as truly horrific and shocking. Modern audiences, however, respond to the film very differently because they have generally been exposed to much more graphic and shocking violence in more contemporary narratives. Psycho, therefore, often isn’t as engaging for modern audiences compared to when it was first released.

Getting started

Rewatch the films you are studying for narrative. What did you expect the films would be like? What did you know about the genre of your films? Did the films fulfil your expectations? Were you surprised or engaged if they didn’t? Did you enjoy the predictability of the narrative? What were your favourite scenes? Often, these can provide interesting inroads into how your texts engage audiences.

Shot size

Shot size refers to how far away the camera is from a subject. There are six basic shot sizes:

Extreme Long Shot/Establishing Shot (timobalk)	Long Shot (orangeNess)
Full Shot (pookiepix)	Mid Shot (djtomegg69)
Close Up (ana_labate)	Extreme Close Up (pookiepix)

Establishing shots are often used at the beginning of scenes to establish the setting. At the beginning of a film, for example, you might see an extreme long shot of a city or rolling hills. Then, we cut to a closer shot of a street, building and finally the character inside. Extreme close ups are usually an attempt to draw the viewer’s attention to a particular detail. For example, the director may choose to cur from a mid shot of a character to an extreme close-up emphasizing something about that character’s appearance.

Camera angle

Camera angle refers to the angle at which the subject is shot. Camera angle can have a particular effect on the audience.

Camera movement

Camera movement, too, makes a significant contribution to storytelling. Here is a list of different types of camera movement that you might encounter in narratives:

When composing a shot, filmmakers also consider what will be in focus. Depth of field is a term which describes how far the camera can see into the distance. Narrow depth of field is when only part of the image is in focus and much of the background or foreground is out of focus. Deep focus is when everything, even distant objects, is perfectly in focus. Orson Welle’s film Citizen Kane was one of the early films to use this technique. A pull focus is when filmmakers shift the focus from one object to another.

Writing about camera techniques

Whether you are writing about character development or the point-of-view from which the narrative is presented, at some point you will need to make reference to camera techniques. Previous VCE Media exam papers have also asked students to comment on the use of camera techniques in narratives. When you are writing about camera techniques, ensure you use terminology appropriately and explain clearly how the camera is being used.

Here is an example of something a student might write about camera movement in Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight: “During the conversation between Harvey Dent and Bruce Wayne in Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight (2008), Dent asserts that the people of Gotham appointed Batman when they let ‘scum take control’ of the city. Nolan cuts to a midshot of Wayne. As he cuts back and forth between the two characters, the camera slowly dollies in on Bruce Wayne. The heroic theme the audience has come to associate with Harvey Dent plays softly in the background. Wayne smiles slightly as he listens to Dent talk. This combination of camera movement, acting and editing subtly conveys to the audience that Bruce Wayne immediately likes the District Attorney. This is reinforced towards the end of the conversation when Bruce Wayne says, ‘Well, I’m sold, Dent, and I’m gonna throw you a fundraiser…One fundraiser with my pals, you’ll never need another cent.’”

Another example from Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho: “As Marion moves towards the partially open closet, the camera dollies in towards the bed, showing an extreme close-up of the $40,000 stuffed in an envelope on the bed. Bernard Hermann’s suspenseful score increases in intensity as the camera slowly pans to the left, showing a close-up of a an open suitcase draped with clothes. This simple camera movement and use of music conveys Marion’s decision to steal the money. The camera cuts to Marion as she takes a shirt from the closet, turns back towards the bed and puts it on. As she does up the top button, her face is lined with concern and she looks intently towards the bed. There is a close up of the suitcase and a point-of-view shot of the envelop as she looks over her shoulder while standing in front of the mirror. Although she is clearly going to steal the money, the combination of point-of-view shots, editing and acting conveys her indecision.”

In M Night Shyamalan’s Unbreakable, a combination of camera movement and acting are used to convey that the main character, David Dunn, is unhappy with his marriage: “Towards the beginning of M Night Shyamalan’s Unbreakable, David Dunn rests his head against the window of a train, rubbing his eyes. Off screen, we hear a woman’s voice: “Are you alone?” David nods. The camera pans left to reveal a beautiful woman. As she stows her bags in the overhead compartment, the camera lingers on her toned, tattooed stomach before panning back to David, it lingers on his expression for a moment, before tilting down to show him surreptitiously removing his wedding ring. This combination of camera movement and acting contributes to the character development of David Dunn, insinuating that he is unhappy with his marriage.”

Thinking about acting

Writing about acting

Because it is often so subtle, acting is often one of the most difficult production elements to write about. When writing about the contribution that acting makes to a narrative, remember the following:

Sample responses

At the beginning of the film X2, director Bryan Singer establishes that Jean Grey (Famke Janssen) has telepathic and telekinetic abilities. This is achieved using camera movement, sound, editing and acting. Jean turns around and she begins to hear a series of voices: whispers at first that begin to increase in volume and intensity. She looks around, confused and clearly a little disoriented. Editor John Ottman cuts between a series of point of view shots and an extreme close-up of her eyes. As her disorientation increases, these cuts become faster and the camera movement more erratic. Ottman cuts away to television screens that start flickering, then back to Jean who’s clearly unsettled by the onslaught of voices. This clearly demonstrates how a range of production elements, notably acting, can contribute to character development in narratives.

When Marion (Janet Leigh) arrives at the Bates Motel, Norman’s inexperience with women is accentuated through the use of visual composition and acting. Marion takes a step back, motioning towards the open door of her room. Norman hesitantly takes a step forward, then stops, moving back to his original position. Hitchcock uses a mid shot to focus audience attention on his embarrassed expression. The acting and visual composition of this moment conveys to the audience that, although Norman is attracted to Marion, he feels nervous and self-conscious in her presence. He stutters for a moment before suggesting that they eat supper in the office: “It – it might be uh, nicer – and warmer – in the office.” As he hesitantly retreats towards the office door, Hitchcock cuts to mid-shot of Marion who looks slightly bemused.

In The Dark Knight, Christopher Nolan establish that Bruce Wayne (Christian Bale) doesn’t want to be Batman forever and wants to rekindle his relationship with Rachel Dawes (Maggie Gyllenhaal). This is achieved through the use of dialogue, acting and camera techniques when Harvey Dent says, “Whoever Batman is, he doesn’t want to do this for the rest of his life.” As he says this line, director Christopher Nolan lingers on a close up of Bruce Wayne who looks towards Rachel, he swallows, subtly showing that he agrees with Dent. Nolan cuts to a close up of Rachel who returns Bruce Wayne’s glance. This use of dialogue, camera techniques and editing establishes the idea that Bruce Wayne doesn’t want to continue as Batman.

During the opening of Disturbia, director David Caruso uses mise-en-scene to show how the Kale (Shia LaBeouf) is affected by the death of his father. During the opening scene of the film, when Kale is spending time with his father, the shots have been adjusted in post-produciton to accentuate the golden hues of the landscape. After his father’s death, when Kale is sitting in a classroom at school, the image is dull and desaturated. This stark shift in mise-en-scene is used to convey how the death of Kale’s father has affected him.

Thinking about mise-en-scene

Mise-en-scene is used purposefully throughout films to contribute to the narrative. Identify a scene in the film you’re studying in which you think mise-en-scene makes a contribution to the narrative. Play the scene through several times, noting how the use of lighting, make up, costume, props and colour contributes to the narrative or engages audiences. When you’re writing about mise-en-scene, don’t make generalisations about the use of mise-en-scene. Focus on the use of costumes, make up, lighting, colour and props within a single scene, explaining how these elements contribute to the narrative.

Sample responses

In X2 (2003) mise-en-scene contributes significantly to character development during the scene in which Williams Stryker (Brian Cox) interrogates Professor Charles Xavier (Patrick Stewart). At the beginning of the scene, the audience only sees a silhouette of Stryker as he talks to Xavier. The mise-en-scene makes him appear particularly ominous, sinister-looking instruments hang from the ceiling, the shot is filled with shadows and there is a discoloured concrete wall in the background. This use of mise-en-scene makes Stryker seem particularly sinister and evil.

In Psycho (1960), Alfred Hitchcock uses mise-en-scene to subtly contribute to character development in the film. During the conversation, Marion and Norman are framed separately. Norman is surrounded by menacing looking birds. In the top left hand corner of the frame, there is an owl – its wings outstretched as if descending on its prey. Towards the bottom of the frame, there is the shadow of a crow. Both of these birds are extremely sinister and clearly foreshadow the discovery that Norman is murderer. On the wall in the background, there are two paintings. Both of these paintings are medieval paintings of women being attacked. The shadow that divides Norman’s face is a clear reference to his split personality. In the background of this shot, the frame is filled with straight lines. In contrast, Marion is more generously lit than Norman. She is surrounded by curved lines: the milk jug, Tiffany lamp, a rounded picture frame. By itself, this use of visual composition doesn’t tell the audience much about her character. Nevertheless, it creates a contrast between Norman and Marion, between murderer and victim. There are birds in this shot, too. There are several small, stuffed finches perched beneath the lamp. Whereas Norman is surrounded by sinister looking birds of prey, Marion is framed with harmless, ‘passive’ birds. Throughout the parlour scene, Hitchcock is clearly using visual composition to tell the audience about the characters. Norman – surrounded by sinister birds – is clearly characterised as a murderer. Marion – generously lit and framed with small, stuffed finches – is clearly going to become his victim. Although many people don’t recognise this on first viewing the film, when you watch the movie again, it is clear what Hitchcock was conveying through his use of visual composition.

In Equilibrium (2002) mise-en-scene and visual composition are used to create the impression that the characters inhabit live in a world controlled by a repressive totalitarian government which has outlawed emotion. In the opening sequence of the film, The camera tilts up to reveal a cityscape. The buildings are a drab, uniform shade of grey. The sky, too, is dominated by grey clouds which contribute to the sense that this society is completely emotionless. Throughout this sequence, the shots of the city are largely symmetrical which contributes to the sense that, devoid of emotion, the city has reached a state of equilibrium. In one shot, a large zeppelin flies between two almost identical buildings. The people walking in the foreground are all dressed in shades of grey and black. The camera dollies in on rows of people dressed in identical grey uniforms listening to a speech by their leader. Both the symmetry of this shot and they grey costumes contribute to the sense that they live in a repressive and emotionless society. Throughout this scene, the use of colour and composition of shots contribute to the sense that the characters inhabit an emotionless world ruled by a totalitarian regime.

Before the Narrative SAC

During the Narrative SAC

Think carefully about the feedback your teacher has given. What are your strengths? What do you need to do better?
Collate all of your notes and revision material in a single folder. They will be invaluable when you need to revise for the end-of-year exam.

1. Characters are an important part of narratives. In one of the narratives you have studied, explain how one character was established and developed throughout the narrative. Your response should make reference to appropriate production elements, such as: camera techniques, acting, mise-en-scene and visual composition, editing, lighting and sound.

In the opening sequence of Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho, a number of production elements are used to establish the character of Marion Crane and the relationship she has with her lover, Sam Loomis. The camera descends into a dark, partially open window. The venetian blinds are closed. For a moment, the room is completely dark. As the camera pans left, the audience’s first glimpse of Marion Crane, laying on a hotel bed, wearing white lingerie, legs crossed, looking up at her lover, Sam Loomis. A combination of acting, dialogue and music is used to establish these characters and their relationship. Despite meeting in a sleazy hotel room, the audience is encouraged to view their relationship as genuine rather than tawdry. The dialogue reveals that they are unable to be together because Sam is still paying his ex-wife alimony and living behind a hardware store in Fairvale. Marion is tired of their secretive relationship. “Oh, we can see each other,” she says. “We can even have dinner – but respectably – in my house, with my mother’s picture on the mantel, and my sister helping me broil a big steak for three.” Sam professes a deep love for her, conceding that he wants to see her under any circumstance, “even respectability”. Although dialogue is primarily used to establish Marion and Sam as characters, camera techniques and music also makes a contribution. As the scene progresses, Marion and Sam are often shown in the same frame, which contributes to a sense of intimacy and love. When Marion declares that she wants to marry Sam, romantic strings well and they kiss passionately. The mise-en-scene – Marion’s costume – also makes a subtle contribution to her character development. The white fabric and generous key lighting suggests that the character is pure and chaste despite meeting her lover in a cheap motel during her lunch break. Throughout this scene, Hitchcock has used a range of techniques to establish the character of Marion Crane – including dialogue, acting, camera techniques, music and mise-en-scene.

2. Narratives often have multiple storylines. Describe how one storyline was established, developed and resolved in one of the films you studied.

In M Night Shyamalan’s Unbreakable, the relationship that David has with his son Joseph is an important storyline in the narrative. Throughout the course of the narrative, Joseph comes to believe that his father cannot be harmed and that he was ‘put here to protect the rest of us’. Joseph’s adoration of his father is demonstrated at several points in the narrative. Towards the beginning of the film, after David is involved in a devastating train wreck, Shyamalan uses acting to convey that Joseph cares deeply for his father. As David walks slowly from the emergency room of the hospital, Shamalan tracks him for a moment. The camera pans to the left, revealing Joseph who races from his seat in the waiting room and embraces his father. This combination of acting and camera movement establishes the love that Joseph has for his father. After Elijah Price suggests that David cannot be harmed and is a person ‘put here to protect the rest of us’, Joseph attempts to protect a girl from two older boys in the locker room at school. Afterwards, when they’re talking, Joseph admits why he tried to protect the girl: “I thought maybe ’cause you’re my dad…I thought I might be like you. I’m not like you.” Throughout this scene, acting contributes significantly to the storyline. When David insists that he’s just an ordinary man, Joseph appears distraught and visibly upset. This storyline is resolved towards the end of the narrative after David rescues two children from a home invader. Shyamalan resolves this storyline with minimal use of dialogue. Joseph walks into the kitchen where his parents are preparing breakfast and sits across from his father. A mid shot shows him filling a glass of orange juice. The audience sees a point of view shot from the perspective of Joseph. His father nudges a newspaper into frame. The camera tilts up as Joseph looks at his father, then back down to the newspaper. The headline reads: “Hero rescues two children, parents found dead in house.” Shyamalan cuts between a mid shots of David and Joseph. Jeremy’s eyes well up with tears. He looks at his father who nods and whispers, “You were right.”

3. With reference to a scene from one of the texts you studied this year, explain how production elements contributed to audience engagement.

In the film Psycho, Alfred Hitchcock uses a range of production elements to engage the audience as Marion Crane flees Phoenix with the $40,000. The audience has already been encouraged to identify with Marion and throughout this scene, Hitchcock uses acting, music and editing to increase audience engagement with the narrative further. As she is imagining what Sam will say, she nervously adjusts her grip on the steering wheel and, pulls up at an intersection, resting her head on her hand. Hitchcock cuts from the mid-shot of Marion at the wheel of the car to a sustained point-of-view shot through the windshield. Several people pass in front of the car. Point of view shots are a very powerful way of encouraging the audience to identify with a character and engage them in the narrative. Hitchcock cuts back to Marion who still appears concerned. Cutting back to the point-of-view shot, Marion – and the audience – see Lowery and Cassidy pass in front of the car. As he passes, Lowery notices Marion and smiles politely. Hitchcock cuts to a mid-shot of Marion. Janet Leigh’s acting contributes significantly to audience engagement. She smiles, clearly shocked. Hitchcock shows a point-of-view shot of Lowery as he turns and looks back at the car, slightly puzzled. Again, this point of view shot contributes significantly to audience engagement because it is like the audience has been caught in the act of fleeing with the $40,000. Herrmann’s dramatic score begins suddenly. Deep and dramatic violins underscoring Lowery’s discovery that Marion is leaving the city. Hitchcock cuts back to a close-up of Marion whose smile disappears. Audience engagement in this scene is particularly effective. Implicated in the crime, the audience desperately wants Marion to escape. Lowery turns away and continues walking. The audience is left with a sustained close-up of Marion as she continues to drive, face lined with apprehension. Throughout this scene, Hitchcock has used a range of production elements – notably point-of-view shots – to implicate the audience in Marion’s crime and engage them in the narrative..

4. Reception context often influences audience engagement. With reference to one of the texts you have studied, explain how the reception of that text might influence audience engagement.

Reception context refers to the conditions in which an audience views a narrative text. It could, for instance, refer to the technology that is used to view a narrative. It’s a very different experience watching a narrative on the screen of an iPod compared to viewing it in a cinema with surround sound. Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight provides a good example of how reception context can influence audience engagement with a narrative. The Dark Knight had six scenes filmed on an IMAX camera. According to numerous reviews, the print screened at IMAX cinemas was more dramatic and engaging than the original.

5. With reference to a text you have studied this year, explain production elements – such as camera techniques and/or sound – were used to structure time in the narrative.

Throughout Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight, editing is used on a range of occasions to structure time within the narrative. There are two points in the narrative when this is particularly evident. Midway through the film, Nolan uses a montage to show the process Bruce Wayne and Alfred go through when attempting to find fingerprints from a shattered bullet at a crime scene: first, the audience sees a series of shots as Alfred loads bullets into a cartridge and fires them into several pieces of concrete; Nolan then cuts to a close-up of a mechanical device scanning one of the bricks; cutting to yet another shot, he shows a computer monitor analysing the shattered bullet. This sequence of shots takes a complex procedure and condenses it into a few seconds of screen time.

Towards the end of the narrative, there is another example of how Nolan uses editing to structure time. As the city is being evacuated, Nolan shows a long shot of people boarding two ferries. He then cuts to a tighter shot of a line of criminals being herded towards the vessels. There is a midshot of an angry man in the crowd. “Hey, man! That ain’t right! We should be on that boat!” Nolan then cuts to a shot of the boats at night after all of the passengers have boarded. Cutting to an aerial shot of the docks, the ferries are now leaving for the other side of the river. In fewer than four cuts, Nolan used editing to compress the passage of day to night.

Another significant point in the narrative when editing is used to structure time is during the resolution of the narrative when Nolan uses editing to flash forward, resolving various story lines. To ensure that Harvey Dent’s remains a beacon of hope for Gotham City, Batman decides to take responsibility for the murders he committed. “I can do those things because I’m not a hero,” he says. “Not like Dent. I killed those people. That’s what I can be.” During this scene, Nolan flashes forward, showing the repercussion of his decision. He cuts to a midshot of Commisioner Gordon delivering Dent’s eulogy, “A hero. Not the hero we deserved, but the hero we needed. Nothing less than a knight shining.” As Batman says the lines, “You’ll hunt me. You’ll condemn me.”, Nolan once again flashes forward to a shot of Gordon destroying the Bat Signal. Using a voice over to provide continuity, this is another example of how editing contributes to the structuring of time in the narrative.

The Study Design

The Media Study Design can be downloaded from the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website. Here you’ll find all the important information about what you’re supposed to learn. Don’t be daunted by all of the jargon. Your teacher will be explaining the terminology throughout the year. It’s a good idea to become familiar with the Study Design because this is the document that the exam is based on. Each year, when the questions are set for the Media exam, they are drawn from the Study Design.

Narrative

This year, you will be studying two narrative texts. Most teachers will choose films. The texts you are studying may be challenging or unfamiliar. It’s important to remember that your teacher has selected the text because it will allow you to write well about narrative. Watch the texts several times before you study them in class. Take notes. Complete activities. List examples illustrating both production elements and story elements.

During Unit 3, you will complete an assessment task on the texts you have studied. The task is worth 40 marks and contributes 6% to your total study score. Prepare for your Narrative SAC by answering practice questions. Past exam papers are always a good place to find these. Once you’ve seen a few of the questions your teacher has written, you can start making up your own questions based on the key knowledge and skills for Narrative. For example, “In Run Lola Run, describe how two production elements contribute to character development.” Or, “Describe how editing is used to structure time in Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho?’

Media Production Design

The production design plan can’t be rushed. You are going to spend a significant chunk of Unit 3 working on it. When your teacher looks over the production design plan, they should see a very clear blueprint of your finished media product – whether it’s a film, magazine, radio program, website or series of photographs. It is very important that you address each of the production design plan specifications for your medium. In the case of video, for example, this covers things like: audience, intention, style, genre, storyline, techniques of engagement, setting, dialogue, camera techniques, editing, lighting, music and sound. For a complete list of the production design plan specifications, check the VCE Media Study Design or consult the notes that your teacher gives you.

Every year, the VCAA holds an exhibition of excellent VCE Media work. You can find out more about the Season of Excellence at the VCAA website. The Australian Teachers of Media host design plans from previous exhibitions online. It’s worth checking these out to see what a good production design plan looks like.

As a VCE Media teacher, I have seen a lot of design plans. One morning, one of my VCE students came into class. She’d spent a significant part of the previous night laboriously staining the pages of her design plan with coffee. It looked sensational. And I got a caffeine buzz every time I opened the pages. Unfortunately, it was also a colossal waste of time. You can bet that M Night Shyamalan doesn’t stay up late at night staining the pages of his screenplays with coffee. Ridley Scott doesn’t go to the scrapbooking store every time he scribbles down one of his famous storyboards. You don’t need to spend hours decorating your production design plan. Your teacher will appreciate it if you spend more time crafting your storyboards, writing the screenplay or addressing the production design plan specifications.

The Exam

It’s time to start thinking about the VCE Media Exam. The year will be over in a flash. You can cram twelve months of learning into the exam period. In Year Twelve, the exam is worth 45% of your total study score. There will be three areas on the exam: Narrative, Social Value and Media Influence. As you’re studying these topics throughout the year, make sure you organise your notes carefully and complete all of the activities given by your teacher. This will give you an edge when you start exam revision.

Exam Revision Lectures

The Australian Teachers of Media run exam revision lectures in the September holidays. Although this is a busy time for VCE students, start planning to attend one of these lectures now. Your school will receive information about the exam revision lectures closer to the September school holidays. You can also check the Australian Teachers of Media website for more information as they draw closer.

Pre-production

Be realistic. You’re a low budget film maker. Keep the number of actors and locations in your film to a minimum. Simple, well-executed ideas often make the best films!

Write a treatment. Writing a story outline is a great way to work out your ideas before committing yourself to a complete screenplay. A treatment is simply an outline of the story from beginning to end. It might incorporate important dialogue but it’s not necessary to script every conversation at this stage. When you’re writing the treatment, make sure you’re creating something that’s achievable and interesting. At this stage, it’s very easy to reorder events and add scenes. It will be a lot harder to restructure your film later on. Don’t commit yourself to writing the screenplay before you have a treatment that works!

Write a screenplay. If you’re serious about screenwriting, there is also a great piece of software that you can use called Celtx, which incorporates screenwriting and story boarding features side by side. This software is available for a variety of platforms. Whichever software you end up using, make sure that your screenplay is written in Size 12 Courier. This is a clear, monospaced font. Your pages should also be numbered for quick reference on the set. Make multiple copies of your screenplay and give copies to your actors with their parts highlighted.

Storyboard. Visit the location and carefully storyboard your shoot in advance. Think about where you’re going to set up the camera and where the actors are going to be. This is known as blocking. Principal photography will proceed smoothly if you have a very clear idea of what you want to do on location.

Create a shot list. A shot list is a list of all the shots in your film. As you are filming, you can mark each shot off so you don’t miss anything.

Select an appropriate location. Be aware that if you want to shoot in particular public places, such as a train station, you will need to get permission to do so. Choosing an appropriate and accessible location becomes particularly important if you need to re-shoot scenes. Avoid noisy locations. If you’re planning to film a scene near a busy road, there is very little you can do to reduce the noise of surrounding traffic. When shooting outdoors, even a slight breeze wreak havoc with your audio.

Use age appropriate actors. If you’re planning to make a film about a senior citizen or middle-aged woman, enlist the help of older relatives. There’s nothing more unconvincing than your teenage friends pretending to be in their mid-thirties. No one is going to believe that your pimply, younger brother is successful businessman, father or career gambler. If you don’t have access to older actors, don’t write parts for them in your film.

Ensure actors are given scripts well in advance so they have time to learn their lines. There is nothing more frustrating than actors who can’t remember their dialogue. If possible, organise a time to rehearse a scene before going on location to shoot it. If the actors know their lines in advance, principal photography will run smoothly. It is always inconvenient and time consuming to arrange another shoot.

Along with the script, provide an information sheet for the actors and crew, detailing the time, date and location of shooting.

Contact the actors and crew a week before the shoot. The night before, give them another call to ensure that everyone will arrive on time.

Principal photography

Make multiple copies of the screenplay. Bring enough for all of the actors. It’s a good idea to number the pages of your screenplay for quick reference.

Use a shot list. Put your shot list in a clipboard and cross off each shot when it’s completed. This will ensure that you aren’t missing any coverage when you start to edit your film.

When filming, it is important to do multiple takes from multiple angles. In the film making business, this is referred to as ‘coverage’. You want to get as much coverage of a scenes as you possibly can so that you’re not short of footage during post-production. If you’re filming a dialogue scene, shoot the entire conversation from a distance. This is often referred to as a ‘master shot’. Then film each side of the conversation in close-up. During post-produciton, you can cut from your master shot to the close-ups and back again. If there’s any problem with the footage, you will always have another take to cut to. Another good idea when you’re filming a scene like this is to capture several cutaways. A cutaway is a shot separate from but related to the action in your scene. For example, two characters might be having a conversation over coffee. You could shoot a cutaway of a character holding their coffee mug. If there’s any difficulties during the editing process, you can always cutaway to the coffee mug, then back to the action. The audience won’t notice and you’ve saved the time and effort of a re-shoot. Likewise, when you’re filming dialogue, always capture a few shots of the characters responding to each other. This way, if there is a problem with one of the shots, you can cut to the other character – perhaps nodding in agreement or listening attentively – and back again. Once again, you will have avoided a time consuming re-shoot.

Sound. It is a good idea to take a pair of headphones to the shoot so you can monitor the audio levels while you’re recording. Before you start shooting and the actors arrive on the set, listen to the ambient noise through your headphones. Often there are sounds – like refrigerators or air conditioners – that your ears don’t pick up but can ruin the quality of your audio. Perform a few tests with the actors. The sound of their voice should be clearly audible above any ambient noise. Poor audio quality is very difficult to fix in post-produciton. If possible, use a directional microphone or separate audio recorder to improve the quality of your audio track. When you are filming dialogue, the camera needs to be as close to the actor as possible. When you are recording with an inbuilt microphone, don’t go for anything apart from a close-up when recording dialogue.

Lighting. If you’re shooting indoors, make sure you turn on the lights and open windows. Ensure your characters aren’t backlit or the camera is pointed directly at the light source.

Framing. Ensure your characters don’t have too much headroom and there isn’t anything distracting in the background. If you divide the frame into thirds, the points where these lines intersect are where you should put the important parts of a shot. Having everything centred is boring. Using the ‘rule of thirds’ is the best way to create a nice looking shot.

Tripod. Using a tripod is one of the best ways to make your film look professional.

Smooth camera movement. Even if you have a tripod, become used to using the camera in a very disciplined and smooth way. The best way to achieve smooth camera movement is to put one hand under the camera and one on the side to keep your shot steady. Keep your arms and the camera close to your body to reduce shake.

Post production

Effects. Programs like iMovie and Final Cut Pro provide a range of effects and transitions. Keep it simple. There’s nothing more amateurish than multiple effects or gaudy transitions. You can create a brilliant film using simple cuts, cross dissolves and fades.

Copyright. If you want to use copyrighted music in your production, be prepared to pay a considerable amount of money to obtain the rights. If you choose to exhibit or distribute your film without first obtaining the rights to music, you risk legal action. As a low budget film maker, it is a much better decision to find music from emerging, unsigned artists. MySpace is a great place to make contact with new and emerging artists who are, often, more than willing for you to use their music as long as they are credited. Although social networking sites like this are great for connecting with small bands, it’s unlikely that Coldplay or U2 will return your email. Another option is to write your own music using program like Garageband or FL Studio. Be aware that your audience will often recognise loops. Do everything you can to make your music unique and different.

Writing about audience

Who are you making your media product for? It may seem like a simple question but it’s something you have to put a great deal of consideration into when completing your production design plan. The knowledge, expectations and experience of your audience will inform every stage of the planning and production of your media product. When you’re defining the audience for your media product, avoid generalisations. It’s not helpful to write that your intended audience will be ‘adults’ or ‘teenagers’. Simply referring to a particular age group doesn’t tell you much about the people who will be engaging with your media product. You need to have a clear audience in mind.

Let’s imagine that you’re creating a music magazine which will focus on alternative music. You might write something like this: “The audience for this magazine will be teenagers who are interested in music.” No very helpful, right? This is where you can start to be more specific. Write about the attitudes, expectations and knowledge of the audience. A more detailed response might look something like this: “The audience for this magazine will be people who are interested in the alternative music scene. They are the type of people who have their radios tuned to Triple J or RRR. They have an active and passionate interest in music and are always interested in discovering new acts. It is likely that they are not particularly interested in musicians who have achieved mainstream success or regularly have songs in the Top 40. They enjoy music that is more individual, expressive and may not appeal to a mass audience. They will enjoy acts like the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Urthboy, Little Birdy, Eskimo Joe, Bob Evans, Peaches, Bertie Blackman, Numbers Radio, Children Collide and the Kaiser Chiefs. Individuality and musical integrity are important to the audience. They are not only interested in listening to new alternative music but they enjoy reading interviews with artists and band which give them a greater insight into the creative process. When choosing a music magazine, they will have certain expectations about its content. It must be fresh, detailed, insightful and have a great deal of integrity. It will be well-written and not feature shallow puff pieces. They enjoy reading serious music journalism. The audience for this magazine will have a very detailed understanding of alternative music already and will seek out magazines that enrich their understanding of music and its associated subcultures.”

Writing your intention

What do you hope to achieve by producing your media product? Again, it is useful to be specific. When writing your intention, think carefully about what you hope to achieve. Write about the purpose, impact and outcome of your media product. A student creating the above mentioned music magazine might write something like this: “This magazine will be an engaging and intelligent read for people who are passionate about the alternative music scene. It will enrich their understanding of the music and artists by including indepth news, reviews and feature articles which not only comment on this subculture but also give an insight into the creative process. This magazine is for people who love alternative music and will encourage them to delve deeper into this world, appreciating and enjoying the music and artists even more, providing fuel for their interest and passion in this area. Ultimately, this magazine does not aspire to introduce new people to alternative music, rather build support for artists and musicians by creating further passion and interest among their existing fans.”

Questions to consider

A shotlist

A shot list is simply that – a list of all of the shots in your film. When you have completed your screenplay, a shot list is a great way to imagine how it will look on the screen. You simply make a list of all the shots in your film from beginning to end.

This is what a shot list might look like in Microsoft Excel. It’s useful to have the following columns: scene number, shot number, duration, shot size, location and description. Completing your shot list in a spreadsheet is a great idea because after you have printed a chronological list of the shots in your film, you can sort the rows by location. This is particularly useful if you’re shooting in a number of different places. When you’re shooting your film, it’s a great idea to print another copy of your shot list so you can cross each shot off after it’s completed. There’s nothing more frustrating and time consuming to organise additional shoots to pick up material you missed the first time around. A shot list is a surefire way to avoid this. Download a Microsoft Excel shot list template here. If you’re using a PC, right-click on this link to save the file. If you’re using a Mac, hold down the Control Key, click on the link and choose ‘Save Link As…’.

Google Docs Shotlist

This Google Docs shot list template allows you to choose shot size and duration from drop down menus. Clicking on the ‘Share’ button allows multiple people to collaborate on the same shot list at once.

Storyboards

Storyboarding is the process of previsualizing your film using a pencil and paper. Storyboarding is a very powerful way of visually planning your film before you start shooting. Some filmmakers, like M Night Shyamalan, put a great deal of effort into their storyboards. On The Sixth Sense, Shyamalan had planned every single frame before he started shooting.

Ridley Scott is another extremely talented and successful director who quite often draws his own images to convey what a scene should look like. His pictures are so well-known that they are referred to as ‘Ridleygrams’. When he was making the seminal 1979 film Alien, 20th Century Fox was so impressed with the quality and detail of Ridley Scott’s storyboards that they substantially increased the budget for the film.

Using an iPhone, iPod Touch or iPad

If you have access to an iPhone, iPod touch or iPad, Cinemek Storyboard Composer is a great way to easily storyboard your film. It allows you to take photographs, pan and zoom, record audio, play your storyboards back and export the finished document to a PDF.

Using a pencil and paper

Of course, the quickest way to storyboard your film is with a pencil and paper. Even if you’re not great at drawing, it’s possible to produce storyboards very quickly using a pencil and paper.

If you have decided to draw your storyboards, you can download the following templates:

16:9 Storyboard Template (four to a page)

16:9 Storyboard Template (eight to a page)

 Using Post-It notes

Another great hint for creating storyboards involves using Post-It notes. You can quickly sketch out what you want to appear in the frame. The advantage of using this method for storyboarding is that it’s highly collaborative and very easy to move the notes around when you’re working on your ideas. Post-It notes are also available in a ‘widescreen’ format shown in the illustration above.

Using Adobe Photoshop

Digital cameras can also take the hard work out of storyboarding, providing an excellent way to previsualise your film.You can use the Adobe Photoshop files below to put the photographs you take into a storyboard template. This will also help you frame up the images because the aspect ratio of digital still cameras and digital video cameras are different.

16:9 Adobe Photoshop Photo Storyboard Template

4:3 Adobe Photoshop Photo Storyboard Template

In Photoshop, paste your image into the canvas and move your cursor between one of the panels and your image. Holding down the Option/Alt key and clicking between the layers allows you to clip the image to that shape. You can then move the image around until you are satisfied with the framing.

 Storyboarding in Apple Pages

Apple’s word processing program pages also provides an easy and effective way to use digital photographs as storyboards. When you launch the program, click on ‘Miscellaneous’ in the ‘Template Chooser’. Click on ‘Storyboard. When the document opens, you can simply drop digital photographs into the placeholders to quickly create your storyboards. Click on ‘Section’ in the toolbar to add new pages.

Organising your shoot with call sheets

A call sheet is a document used by filmmakers to organise a shoot. It details when actors should arrive on the set and what time you will start shooting particular scenes. Here is an example of a call sheet for Microsoft Word. It includes a cover letter that you may attach to the document outlining the responsibilities that the cast and crew have in your production. You can also use this Google Docs call sheet template.

On low budget films, it’s also a good idea to have a list of contacts numbers for the cast and crew attached to the call sheet. If someone is running late, they can give you a call and the schedule can be adjusted accordingly.

Another good idea is to have a list of all the props and equipment required for principal photography. The director can use the list to check off equipment as it’s collected in anticipation of the shoot. This is not something you would make available to the cast and crew unless they’re responsible for bringing particular items.

The success of your media production depends on a smooth shoot. You can make principal photography a lot easier by using organisational tools like these.